running out of space in the last thread:
>>30155680
>>30156873
When the Air Ministry issued requirements in 1934 for a new night bomber, Armstrong Whitworth decided to adapt their failed A.W.23 bomber-transport. Retaining the wings and tail of the A.W.23, Armstrong Whitworth developed an all-new semi-monocoque fuselage. The distinct nose and tail turret remained as the bomber’s only defensive armament, but bomb bays were added in the fuselage and inner wing sections, providing provisions for a total payload capacity of 7,000lb. Because of the added weight, Armstrong Whitworth needed to compensate to allow takeoff and landing rolls to still be reasonable. As its engineers were uncomfortable working with flaps on such a large machine, they instead gave the wings an 8.5 degree angle of incidence. While it would improve low-speed performance, it made cruising flight inefficient, as the bomber was forced to fly with a noticeable nose-down attitude. The first prototype took flight in March 1936, but before the bomber had even flown an order for 80 had been placed owing to the urgent need to modernize the inventory
>>30156895
The Whitley first entered service in March 1937, replacing the biplane Heyford. Seven squadrons would be operational by the outbreak of war in 1939, all of which were later mark variants that mounted the Rolls Royce Merlin engine. Even with the new engine, however, the Whitley was obsolete by the outbreak of war. They were called into action on the first night of the war, dropping propaganda leaflets over Germany. Together with Hampdens, they made the first bombing raid on German soil on the night of March 19, 1940, and in June, they made their first raids on Italy. Despite its obsolescence, the Whitley suffered far lower casualties than the Wellington and Hampden thanks to it being flown exclusively on night missions.
>>30156910
Despite the obsolescence of the Whitley, it continued to fly in RAF service well into the war. Over 1,000 would be produced, with the bombers flying nearly 9,000 missions and dropping almost 10,000 tons of bombs for the loss of 269 aircraft. They were finally retired from frontline service at the end of 1942, with the bombers shifting over to transport and electronic warfare duties. In that role, the Whitley continued to fly over Europe, towing gliders and deploying paratroopers on various covert operations. RAF Coastal Command also operated the bomber, using it as an antisubmarine patrol platform in what would be its last combat use. In these secondary roles, the Whitley would persist until the end of the war.
>>30156916
Though several biplanes were coming into service at the start of the ‘30s, the Air Ministry could tell that the future was clearly in monoplanes. Hoping to kickstart the modernization of the RAF bomber force early, the Air Ministry issued specifications in September 1932 for a new twin-engined bomber with significantly higher performance than anything then in service. Though requirements initially called for a 1,000lb payload and 720 mile range, the Air Ministry successively revised the specifications over the years. As a result, it wouldn’t be until nearly four years after the specifications were issued that the two winning designs - the Vickers Wellington and Handley Page Hampden - would fly. Fortunately, all the work put into the two bombers paid off - they would rise to be the backbone of the RAF’s bomber force in the early years of the war and they would be some of the most successful bombers of the war.
>>30156925
For their new bomber, Vickers created a large aircraft using the same geodetic construction methods that had been so successful with the Wellesley bomber. Designed around a long, slender fuselage, the Wellington was outwardly fairly conventional, really only standing out with its unique structure. By the time the prototype finally took shape in 1936, the Wellington had a payload of 4,5000lb and range of 2,800 miles. Taking flight in June 1936, the Wellington prototype was significantly different from production machines, using a thinner fuselage and lacking the characteristic nose and tail turrets that would be seen on production machine. Testing went well, and the RAF ordered 180 bomber after some modifications. The production machine would make use of a deeper fuselage and have six machineguns placed about the aircraft in twinned nose and tail turrets and individual waist positions.
>>30156964
The Wellington entered RAF service in October 1938, with six squadrons operational when war broke out. On September 4, 1939, they launched their first raid of the war against German shipping, losing two of their own in what became the first RAF losses over the Western Front. Despite this early failure, the RAF believed the heavy armament of the Wellington could protect it, so daylight raids continued. In mid-December, three squadrons made two successive raids on Wilhelmshaven, failing to hit their targets but suffering catastrophic losses. In the aftermath of these disasters, the RAF completely abandoned daylight raids. The switch to night raids also signaled a lull in the bombing campaign. Until May 1940, Wellingtons would only fly the sporadic leaflet-dropping mission.
>>30156977
Strategic bombing finally resumed on May 15, 1940, when Wellingtons flew alongside Whitleys and Hampdens to hit targets in the Ruhr. These early raids had little impact, however. The difficulties of navigating at night over long distances meant that the bombers often missed their targets, and, even when they did hit close to the targets, the small bombs they were dropping often did little damage. Strategic bombing continued endemically, but it wouldn’t be until 1941 that the Wellington really started to show its utility. The Wellington was one of the few aircraft capable of carrying the 4,000lb “blockbuster” bomb, dropping the first of these weapons in April 1941. Meanwhile, a radio navigation system had been developed for Bomber Command, becoming operational in March 1942. By then, the Wellington had become the mainstay of Bomber Command, replacing the twin-engined machines it was developed alongside.
>>30156987
In 1942, a new tactic was deployed by Bomber Command. On May 30, 1942, the RAF brough every bomber out of reserve to launch a massive new raid. 599 Wellingtons would form the backbone of the 1,042-bomber force aimed at Cologne. The attack was a success. German air defenses were overwhelmed, and 898 bombers reported hitting their target, for the loss of just 40 aircraft. Though the Wellington was serving well, however, its time as the mainstay of Bomber Command was limited. The arrival of the new generation of four-engined bombers meant that the Wellington would gradually be drawn down and shifted to secondary roles. Nevertheless, its service was hardly unimpressive. The tremendously durable machine would fly 47,409 missions, dropping 41,823 tons of bombs for the loss of 1,332 in action during its stay with Bomber Command.
>>30157003
As Bomber Command’s demand for Wellingtons declined, Coastal Command began to take on the aircraft. The spacious fuselage, long range, and heavy payload of the Wellington made the bomber an incredibly useful patrol platform. Equipped with radars and a complement of torpedoes or bombs, the Wellington was an effective antisubmarine platform. Several Wellingtons were configured with a massive ring-shaped magnetic field generator placed around the fuselage for minesweeping work. Having entered service with Coastal Command in 1940, the Wellington would claim its first submarine in July 1942. As the war came to an end, several Coastal Command Wellingtons were deployed to Greece, where they flew support for the RAF while they intervened in the Greek Civil War.
>>30157011
In the Mediterranean, the Wellington would really come to shine. Coastal Command Wellingtons operating out of Malta took a heavy toll on Axis shipping, crippling the Axis war effort in North Africa. Meanwhile, it came to be the primary bomber of British forces in the theater. Replacing Blenheims when it first arrived in September 1940, the Wellington would come to fly with five squadrons over North Africa. In addition to flying strategic strikes against enemy forces in Libya, they were called into action to support Allied operations in Crete and crush the 1941 rebellion in Iraq. Three squadrons remained in service through the end of the North Africa campaign, supporting the invasion of Italy. As the war came to an end, Wellingtons were slowly replaced with more modern types, but the Wellington would remain operational in Italy until the end of the war.
>>30157020
The last theater where the Wellington would make an appearance was the Far East. With priority given to the more pressing matters in Europe, the Wellington wouldn’t arrive in the Far East until well after war had broken out in 1942. Operating out of India, they were used to support British operations in Burma. With operations focused around Burma, they remained there until the end of the war. In addition to the more active bombing role, maritime patrol Wellingtons were also deployed, starting their operations in October 1942. Unfortunately, for all the Wellington’s impressive career, it would not last beyond the end of the war. By 1945, most units were already replacing the bomber, even in tertiary theaters, and with the end of the war, the entire Wellington inventory was retired
>>30157035
Handley Page took a different approach from Vickers, developing a compact new bomber intended to provide crews with a more agile platform. Known as the Hampden, the bomber had a crew of four concentrated in a compact forward fuselage. Flexible gun mountings were used in place of turrets to keep weight down, with guns mounted in nose, ventral, and dorsal positions. A slender tail extended backwards from the fuselage, split into two rudders, and a long bomb bay under the cockpit provided spaced for 4,000lb of bombs or a single torpedo. The Hampden would first fly six days after the competing Wellington on June 21, 1936. After two months of testing, an order for 80 Hampdens was placed, with the first production aircraft rolling out in May 1938.
>>30157042
The Hampden entered service in September 1938, with 226 reaching service with 10 squadrons by the time war broke out a year later. Unfortunately, crews quickly found that the Hampden was no match for Luftwaffe fighters, despite its speed and agility. Like nearly every fast bomber designed before the outbreak of war, Hampden crews quickly found that they lacked the speed to evade enemy fighters and the armament to adequately defend themselves. Daylight operations were brief and devastating, and very quickly the Hampden was shifted off to night bombing. As a night bomber, the Hampden saw heavy use, participating in the first attacks on German soil, the first attacks on the German mainland, and the first raid on Berlin. With its bomb bay capable of carrying torpedoes, the Hampden was also deployed as an anti-shipping platform. It would make several attacks on the German capital ships stationed in France in 1940, and they saw heavy use mining North Sea and French ports.
>>30157052
Despite its utility, by July 1940 production of the Hampden by Handley Page had ceased to make way for four-engined heavy bombers. Its cramped fuselage was one of the chief reasons for its retirement before the Wellington, while the narrow bomb bay also became a liability as larger bombs were developed. Though the bomber was on its way out by 1941, examples did stick around through 1942. 79 would participate in the first 1,000-bomber raid of the war, and they continued to fly night missions until their retirement in 1943. By the time the Hampden was finally retired, losses were staggering. Of the 1,430 Hampdens built, 714 were lost in operations. Though by no means a bad aircraft, it was clearly unable to cope with the intensity of the war.
>>30157063
Though the H.P.43 was a failure, Handley Page began heavily reworking the design into a high-winged monoplane under the designation H.P.51. In parallel, they also began a more radical reworking of the design, creating a twin-engined bomber with a deep fuselage and ggull wing under the designation H.P.54. Both were designed around the same bomber-transport specification, though neither succeeded in meeting the requirements. However, the H.P.54 caught the attention of the RAF, who were looking to rapidly modernize their inventory. A new specification was written around the H.P.54, emphasizing the bomber role while retaining modest transport capabilities. Ordered off the drawing board as the Harrow, the bomber would receive a production order of 100 aircraft months before it first flew. Overall, the Harrow seemed a promising aircraft. It was fitted with powered dorsal, nose, and tail turrets, while an internal bomb bay provided space for 3,000lb of bombs. The Harrow prototype first flew in October 1936, and testing went smoothly enough for the first production aircraft to reach service in January of the next year.
>>30157073
Production of the Harrow concluded quickly, with all 100 aircraft delivered to five squadrons by the end of 1937. Unfortunately, the Harrow was never a very popular aircraft, as the novel turret design led to a cold, draughty cabin. Being an interim bomber, it was phased out of frontline units by the end of 1939 without ever seeing combat. However, in secondary roles, it persisted. Transport variants served until the last days of the war in Europe, and several were used to experiment with in-flight refueling systems. Most notably, six Harrows were used to test towed aerial mines to combat German night bombers in 1940. Though unorthodox, the tactic left the bombers credited with 4 to 5 kills for no losses before the practice was deemed impractical and the program cancelled.
>>30157078
In response to the same single-engined long-range bomber requirements that produced the Fairey Battle, Armstrong Whitworth developed the A.W.29. The A.W.29 was a mid-winged all-metal monoplane designed around the Armstrong Siddeley Tiger radial engine. The crew of two were seated in tandem, with the rear gunner manning a manually-operated turret. Landing gear was retractable, but it was designed in such a way as to leave the tires partially exposed. The A.W.29 took flight for the first time in December 1936, well after the first flight of the competing Battle. Not long after it first flew, it was damaged in a wheels-up landing. Though repairable, by then Fairey had already been awarded the production contract, so the A.W.29 was scrapped.
>>30157092
In September 1935, the Air Ministry issued new specifications for a three-seat twin-engined reconnaissance aircraft/torpedo bomber. Only two companies - Blackburn and Bristol - would submit designs, with Bristol deriving their proposal from the successful Blenheim fast bomber. Unusually, the Air Ministry would order both designs into production straight from the drawing board. Because of the rush to modernize the inventory and keep parity with Germany, massive orders for both aircraft were placed, with the first examples rolling out on the eve of war.
>>30157100
Bristol’s new torpedo bomber, the Beaufort, was developed from the Blenheim. The Beaufort in many ways resembled a larger Blenheim, keeping its characteristic layout but using a deeper fuselage to accommodate a semi-recessed torpedo or an increased bombload. Because of the higher gross weight, the wingspan was increased slightly and more powerful engines were mounted. Despite being larger than the Blenheim, refinements to the aircraft’s structure meant that empty weight didn’t increase by much. The first Beaufort was rolled out in mid 1938, but the new Bristol Taurus engines were prone to heating issues, meaning that the first flight wouldn’t take place until October 1938. Even as testing concluded, priority for production remained with the Blenheim, so the type didn’t start to reach squadron service until January 1940.
>>30157110
The first squadrons to receive the Beaufort required a fair amount of retraining, as they were transitioning from the far slower Vickers Vildebeest that required a much shorter approach to deploy its torpedoes. Early operations consisted of minelaying, and, owing to a shortage of torpedoes, the first real antishipping operations would be conducted with newly developed 2,000lb bombs. Torpedo attacks didn’t begin until September 1940, with armed maritime patrol missions beginning soon after. Through 1941, Beauforts took part in operations against German capital ships, most notably Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, which were stationed in France. In early 1942, when the Kriegsmarine attempted to pass Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Prinz Eugen through the Channel to move them to Norway, 28 Beauforts were sortied to stop them. Unfortunately, they made a poor showing. Only 11 Beauforts actually sighted the ships and launched their torpedoes, and none of them managed to hit their targets. Due to the failure in this operation, Coastal Command made the decision to replace the Beaufort with a more capable torpedo bomber. One final major attack on Prinz Eugen would be made in May 1942, after which the Beauforts were replaced by the Beaufighter heavy fighter.
>>30157120
In the Mediterranean, Beauforts began arriving in January 1941. Operations against Italian shipping began the next year, with the bombers flying out of Egypt and Malta. Active numbers gradually grew, with 86 Squadron arriving from England in July 1942, and the Beaufort began to take a major toll on Axis shipping. Working in conjunction with Wellingtons and Beaufighters, they regularly made attacks on Axis convoys supplying forces in North Africa, crippling and sinking many ships, including the cruiser Trento. Unfortunately, the Beaufort’s career here was doomed to be brief. By 1943, Beaufighters had started to replace the Beaufort, and by June of that year, the last squadron had converted over.
>>30157133
The Beaufort would undoubtedly see its greatest service in the Far East. Six Australian-built Beauforts would be among the first aircraft to reach Singapore after Japan invaded Malaya in December 1941. Unfortunately, after just a single reconnaissance sortie ended with a heavily-damaged Beaufort being written off, the surviving bombers returned home. However, the Australians quickly retrained crews, and by mid 1942, they were performing just as well as their RAF cousins in the Mediterranean. Meanwhile, the RAF shifted several squadrons from Britain to Ceylon, where they supported operations in Burma. In all, some 19 squadrons would fly the Beaufort in the Pacific, with production increasing until 1943. It became an invaluable part of the Allied effort in the New Guinea theater, remaining in service there until finally replaced by Beaufighters in 1944.
>>30157149
Blackburn would produce an entirely new aircraft, known as the Botha, for the torpedo bomber requirements. The Botha was another twin-engined monoplane, making use of a shoulder-mounted wing that allowed for a deep bomb bay. Designed around the Bristol Perseus engine like the competing Beaufort, Blackburn would not upgrade the design to the more powerful Taurus like Bristol did with their bomber. In terms of armament, the Botha was similar to the Beaufort, with a single forward-firing machinegun and a twin-gun turret for defense as well as a payload of up to 2,000lb of bombs or a single torpedo. Taking flight for the first time in December 1938, it was quickly found to have major problems. The location of the engines made the view from the cockpit terrible, causing the RAF to declare it “useless as a General Reconnaissance aircraft.” Worse, it proved to be underpowered. It did manage to pass torpedo and mining trials, but the decision was made to not equip it to torpedo squadrons. Instead, only four reconnaissance squadrons would fly the Botha, with the first squadron receiving the aircraft in June 1940. They would fly convoy escort through the end of the year, but high losses due to the aircraft being underpowered and unstable led to its withdrawal from frontline service in 1941. They were transferred to training units, where they remained until 1944.
>>30157159
As war loomed, the Air Ministry began the process of procuring a new generation of heavy bombers for the RAF. Though the RAF had previously preferred twin-engined machines, difficulties in development of the newest generation of high-end piston engines prompted the Air Ministry to start looking into the development of four-engined bombers. Thus, the new specifications would call for a four-engined machine with a payload of 14,000lb over a range of 2,000 miles or payload of 8,000lb with a range of 3,000 miles. Cruise speed was to be 230mph at 15,000ft, and the bomber was to have three defensive turrets to protect itself. The bomber was to also have secondary transport capabilities, with provisions made for 24 troops to be carried inside. Because it was expected that the bomber would be operating from far-flung colonial theaters, the bomber was to have a takeoff roll of 500ft. Only Short and Supermarine would end up getting contracts for designs. Short, deriving their design from their successful Sunderland flying boat, would produce a fairly successful design, but Supermarine’s project would drag on into the war before being cancelled without ever flying.
>>30157203
Short was originally given low priority for development, having derived their design from the Sunderland flying boat. Known as the Stirling, the bomber was a fairly simple adaptation of the flying boat, with the lower deck removed and landing gear and a bomb bay added. Much of the design was identical to the Sunderland, down to the slight upward bend of the tail intended to keep the Sunderland’s tail clear of sea spray. Though placed on low priority by the Air Ministry, Short was contracted to develop their design as a fallback in the event Supermarine’s more promising design proved to be a failure. A subscale prototype was flown in September 1938, followed by the first real prototype in May 1939. Though intended as a stopgap, the urgent need for modern bombers meant that the Stirling was ordered into production. It was hardly a poor decision. The Stirling was a massive plane, larger than anything else the RAF was operating, and, with a 14,000lb payload, it was in a class of its own.
>>30157213
>pic
>>30157213
The Stirling reached operational status in January 1941, flying its first missions in February against targets in Rotterdam. Despite its size, it handled surprisingly well, with its thick wing giving it better agility than even the night fighters it encountered on missions. However, the bomber suffered from a low service ceiling that made operations difficult, particularly when attacking Italy, where the bombers were forced to fly through rather than over the Alps. Because it was forced to fly at lower altitudes, it was often the first to be targeted by enemy fighters, leading to heavy losses. It was quickly overshadowed by the Lancaster and Halifax heavy bombers, both of which had better performance than the Stirling. Despite its large bomb bay, the types of payloads that could be carried were limited because of the structural members dividing the bay, and, though payload was impressive for short-ranged missions, the Stirling could carry no more bombs than the RAF’s medium bombers for the longer-ranged missions.
>>30157226
Because of all the shortcomings, the Stirling’s operational career was brief. Serviceable numbers peaked in 1942, and by the end of 1943, Bomber Command was phasing them out to secondary roles. It began to shift off to less dangerous missions such as minelaying, electronic warfare, and dropping agents behind enemy lines. Dedicated glider-towing variants were developed to work with Britain’s heavy transport gliders, with these Stirlings taking part in the airborne operations in Normandy and at Market Garden. By the end of the war, Stirlings had flown some 14,500 sorties with Bomber command, dropping 27,000 tons of bombs, and losing 582 in action. Though Stirlings persisted in combat roles into 1944, they flew exclusively in secondary roles by the end of the war.
>>30157233
Supermarine would propose a massive new aircraft for the heavy bomber requirements, developing a design that made use of bomb bays in not just the fuselage, but inner wing sections as well. With the Merlin, Hercules, and Napier Dagger engines selected as possible powerplants, the design gained favor with the Air Ministry, who ordered it in 1937. Unfortunately, development ran into major delays. The death of the chief designer of the project slowed work, and priority given to other projects - particularly the Spitfire - meant that Supermarine’s new bomber would still be under construction when war broke out. Unfortunately, Supermarine’s facilities would be targeted by Luftwaffe bombers, irreparably harming the program. The two incomplete prototypes along with their plans were destroyed when Supermarine’s factory was bombed on September 26, 1940. Development continued officially for a bit longer, but in November 1940, the order was finally cancelled.
>>30157247
In 1936, the Air Ministry issued specifications for a new heavy bomber, calling for a twin-engined aircraft making use of the still-in-development Rolls Royce Vulture engine. Original specifications were fairly demanding, calling for the bomber to be capable of dive bombing, torpedo bombing, and catapult-assisted takeoffs. Avro, Handley Page, Hawker, and Vickers would all respond with proposals, with Avro and Handley Page receiving orders for prototypes.Unfortunately, though all designs showed promise, the failure of the Vulture engines led to the abandonment of the requirements with none of the contracted designs seeing heavy use. However, the aircraft developed for the specification would later be heavily reworked into four-engined machines, resulting in the most successful RAF bombers of the war - the Handley Page Halifax and Avro Lancaster.
To meet the unusual new Air Ministry requirements, Avro would design an unusual new aircraft with an expansive bomb bay. Known as the Manchester, the bomber was a twin-tailed machine fitted with turrets in nose, dorsal, and tail positions for defense. The pilot sat under a greenhouse canopy mounted high on the fuselage, and a massive bomb bay would run much of the length of the fuselage, providing space for over 10,000lb of bombs. The design proved promising enough for the RAF to order 200 Manchesters off the drawing board in 1937, two years before it would fly. By the time it did fly for the first time in July 1939, several shortcomings were found. The wings had to be extended by 10 ft, and directional instability forced Avro to add a third vertical tail along the centerline. More glaringly, the Vulture engines the Manchester had been designed around were terrible unreliable. Despite the problems, production had already begun, so the RAF would have to find a use for the bomber.
>>30157286
The first production Manchester was delivered in August 1940, with the bomber officially entering service in November. Operations began in February 1941 with a raid on Brest, but operations were few and far between. Serviceability was low, and in April 1941, all Manchesters were grounded due to an engine defect. When they returned to service in August, flutter issues arose, keeping most aircraft out of combat. When the RAF sortied all serviceable bombers on a raid on Berlin in November 1941, only 15 Manchesters could participate, and even when the RAF brought every bomber available into service for the 1,000-bomber raid on Cologne in May 1942, only 35 Manchesters were able to fly. Ultimately, production of the Manchester was halted in November 1941 with only 209 built. The bomber was phased out of service by June 1942, flying just 1,269 sorties and dropping 1,826 tons of bombs for the loss of 78 aircraft in action and a further 45 in non-operational incidents (30 of which involved engine failure). As they left combat roles, the surviving Manchesters served as conversion trainers for the new Lancaster, which Avro had hastily developed out of the bomber in 1941.
>>30157299
The Vickers proposal dated all the way back to 1935, when Vickers proposed an enlarged derivative of the Wellington bomber to meet a requirement for a two-engined heavy bomber. Originally designed around the Bristol Hercules engine, Vickers would offer an alternative variant with Rolls Royce Vulture engines to meet the new bomber requirements as well. At a glance, the Warwick looked like a larger Wellington, with the only distinguishing feature being the dorsal gun turret. Two prototype Warwicks were built, the first of which flew in August 1939. As testing went on, Vickers dropped plans to mount the Vulture on the bomber, instead opting for the far more promising Bristol Centaurus engine. Ultimately, availability issues with the Centaurus meant that the Warwick would instead be ordered into production with two American Pratt & Whitney Double Wasp engines with slightly less power.
>>30157311
The first Warwicks were delivered for testing in July 1942. Though originally configured as a bomber, the order was modified after just 16 bombers were delivered to configure the aircraft for patrol duties owing to the development of far more capable four-engined bombers. Testing found the Warwick to be underpowered and suffering from severe handling issues. Though later variants making use of the Centaurus engine solved some of the issues, the Warwick remained a problematic aircraft throughout its career. The Warwick ended up living out its career with Coastal and Transport Commands. Transports were primarily sent to the Mediterranean, with plans to send them to the Far East halted when it was recognized that the fabric skinning of the aircraft couldn’t handle the hot, humid conditions in Burma. Patrol variants of the Warwick were generally configured for air-sea rescue, carrying an airborne lifeboat in place of bombs to rescue aircrews that ditched over the North Sea. By 1944, many Warwicks were going straight from the factory to storage, and at the end of the war, the Warwick was retired.
>>30157328
Handley Page would develop another twin-tailed design to meet the new bomber requirements, which was ordered off the drawing board in 1937 along with Avro’s Manchester. Known as the Halifax, it was a fairly unremarkable twin-tailed design with a deep fuselage to accommodate a large bomb bay. However, soon after the production order was placed, Handley Page was ordered to redesign the bomber as a four-engined aircraft, owing to the technical issues being found in the Vulture engine. The redesign led to a significant enlargement of the bomber. Wingspan increased by 11 feet to 99ft, and gross weight rose by 13,000lb. Four Rolls Royce Merlin engines were selected as the powerplant for the new bomber, which, after being presented as a mockup in 1938, was ordered off the drawing board once more. The Halifax would have a 22ft long bomb bay in the fuselage as well as six bomb cells in the wings, giving it a total payload capacity of 13,000lb. Defensive guns were placed in nose and tail turrets along with waist positions, though later machines would add a dorsal turret. The Halifax finally flew for the first time in October 1939, being rushed into production not long afterwards.
>>30157338
The Halifax would enter RAF service in November 1940, with missions starting in February of the next year. Due to shortages in Merlin engines, production machines would instead mount the Bristol Hercules engine. Early service was sporadic and uneventful, only picking up with Air Chief Marshal Harris came into command of Bomber Command. Halifax numbers rapidly rose, and the bomber briefly held the position as the RAF’s preeminent heavy bomber. However, the Halifax was quickly overshadowed by the Avro Lancaster. The Lancaster, with its cavernous bomb bay, was capable of carrying even the largest bombs in the RAF inventory, while the Halifax could not. Nevertheless, the Halifax did have its benefits, with lower loss rates and higher survival rates among crews. When the first 1,000-bomber raid was launched in May 1942, 131 Halifaxes were the most numerous heavy bomber to participate in the raid.
>>30157348
Unfortunately, though Halifax numbers progressively grew, it began to fall out of favor as the Lancaster proved itself more capable of undertaking the firebombing missions the RAF was now flying. Unable to carry the 4,000-lb “Cookie” necessary for firebombing missions, the Halifax would be eclipsed by Lancasters from 1943 onwards. Though Halifax production continued, as the disparity in performance with the Lancaster wasn’t considered enough to be worth disrupting production, the Halifax was slowly transitioned to tertiary theaters. Nevertheless, the Halifax would rack up an impressive record by the end of the war. 82,773 missions were flown by Halifaxes, dropping 224,207 tons of bombs for the loss of 1,833 aircraft.
>>30157359
Outside of bomber command, the Halifax would make appearances in the Middle East and Far East. The first Halifaxes arrived in Palestine in 1942, just in time to support Allied forces at Tobruk that July. Thanks to their various navigation aids, they became an integral part of the bomber force there, with one squadron serving as pathfinders for other bombers in the theater. The Halifax would follow the North African campaign into Sicily and finally Italy, ending the war there. Though plans called for the Halifax to be replaced by the Liberator by war’s end, the Halifax remained in service in Italy in 1945. A small number of Halifaxes were also deployed to the Far East in 1945. Because the bombers were better suited to tropical conditions than the Lancaster, they were deployed both to support jamming operations around India as well as prepare for the planned invasion of Japan.
>>30157369
In 1938, the Air Ministry issued specifications for a twin-engined mixed construction bomber that could be easily built by manufacturers with little experience in aircraft construction. Bristol, de Havilland, and Armstrong Whitworth were approached for designs, but only Armstrong Whitworth’s proposal would materialize. Known as the Albemarle, it was a twin-engined aircraft with tricycle undercarriage divided into sub-sections that could be built independently. A dorsal turret and retractable ventral position were added, and payload was 4,500lb of bombs. Owing to the urgent need for aircraft, in October 1938, 200 examples were ordered off the drawing board. The first Albemarle prototype flew in March 1940. Unfortunately, testing revealed the Albemarle held no advantages over existing designs, so plans for it to serve as a bomber were dropped. However, it still showed promise as a reconnaissance aircraft, so production continued. The first Albemarles entered service in January 1943, with several squadrons eventually flying the type. They ended up being used mostly for transport and glider tug duties instead of combat roles. As a transport, it was cramped and uncomfortable, but it served reasonably well as a glider tug, supporting the airborne drops at Normandy and Market Garden.
>>30157378
Among the various foreign aircraft operated by the RAF during the Second World War was the Martin Maryland. The Maryland had originally been ordered by France in the leadup to the war, as their domestic industry was unable to meet demand. Having originally ordered over 200 examples of the Martin 167F, France capitulated with 75 of the order yet to be delivered. However, just before the armistice, France signed an agreement in which all of their orders would transfer over to Britain. 32 undelivered aircraft had been completed to French specifications, so they were quickly modified to meet British requirements. The Wright Cyclone engines were replaced with Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasps, and various instruments and weapons were replaced. The remainder of the order was completed to British specifications. These entered service in 1940 as the Maryland. The Marylands were delivered straight to the Mediterranean, where they operated out of Egypt and Malta. Being faster than the Bristol Blenheim, they took over the older aircraft’s reconnaissance mission. Armed with forward firing guns, the Maryland would engage patrolling enemy aircraft on more than one occasion, with one pilot even reaching ace in the machine. However, the Martin never saw too much use, with the type replaced by more capable machines - both domestic and Lend-Lease - as they became available.
>>30157396
With the RAF’s heavy bombers then in development still yet to enter service as of 1940, the RAF looked abroad for a stopgap solution. In early 1940, the RAF made an agreement with the USAAC, receiving 20 B-17Cs that would serve as the Fortress. Operations began in July 1941. Though it did manage to severely damage the battleship Scharnhorst, it was generally a failure, proving no more suitable for daylight raids than the rest of the RAF’s inventory. Eight B-17Cs were lost by September 1941, after which they were handed off to Coastal Command for long-range patrol work. In August 1942, 19 B-17Fs and 45 B-17Es arrived, joining the older Fortresses with Coastal Command. One squadron was configured as electronic warfare aircraft, however, flying closer to Europe to jam radio communications with German night fighters.
>>30157406
When the Air Ministry issued the P.13/36 requirements in 1936 (that led to the Halifax and Manchester), Handley Page would propose an unarmed high-speed bomber capable of outrunning any enemy fighters. Though it received little interest among the RAF at the time, it caught the attention of de Havilland. In 1938, de Havilland pitched a new proposal to the Air Ministry. Powered by two engines (Merlins, Hercules, or Sabres), it was to be a sleek lightly-armed machine made entirely of wood. Initial work involved repurposing airliner designs like the Flamingo or Albatros, but eventually de Havilland settled on a new design. The new design would be completely devoid of armament, though various different configurations were still proposed. A month after the outbreak of war, de Havilland finalized the design as the DH.98. Powered by two Merlin engines, the DH.98 was to be a two-man all-wood bomber with no defensive armament, instead relying on speed for defense. After much lobbying, de Havilland succeeded in getting an order for a single prototype ordered at the end of 1939.
>>30157444
Unfortunately, de Havilland had to struggle to keep official support for the project, only preserving funding by assuring the government that the project would not interfere with production of other aircraft. In November 1940, the prototype Mosquito finally flew for the first time. The new bomber performed well, with trials showing that it outpaced the Spitfire at 6,000ft. Though the Mosquito had initially faced resistance, its excellent performance was now gaining it official support. Production was authorized by mid 1941, and, when the first production aircraft was delivered later that year, it became the world’s fastest operational aircraft. Production was slow at first, but by 1942, enough Mosquitoes had reached service for operations to start.
>>30157456
The Mosquito started operations in the summer of 1942, starting off with a series of low-level daylight raids across the Channel. Early missions already were showing promise, with the Mosquito managing to outpace even the fast new Fw 190. On September 19, Mosquitoes would make the first ever daylight raid on Berlin, again outrunning fighters sortied to intercept them. With such incredible performance, the Mosquito soon began to take on special missions. On January 30, 1943, Mosquitoes were sortied to carry out attacks to disrupt speeches being made by Hermann Goering and Joseph Goebbels in Berlin. By hitting a broadcasting station at low level in Berlin, they managed to interrupt the speeches of both men. However, it was not without loss. Berlin’s air defenses were on high alert, and they managed to down one of the attacking bombers.
>>30157471
As the strategic bombing campaign kicked off, the Mosquito grew to be a major part of Bomber Command’s efforts. While other bombers were limited to inaccurate night raids, the Mosquito could carry out precision daylight attacks. For night missions, they often acted as diversions, simulating large formations using chaff to draw away enemy night fighters. Mosquito attacks came every night, keeping constant pressure on enemy air defenses even when larger attacks were not scheduled. When they weren’t flying diversions, Mosquitoes were often marking targets for larger formations of bombers, dropping flares for the coming bombers to aim at. Later, once Allied forces got a foothold in France, Mosquitoes were kept available to hit targets on short notice. These included V1 launch sites, bridges, and tunnels, which Mosquitoes proved more effective than any other bomber at hitting.
>>30157480
By the end of the war, Mosquitoes had flown over 28,000 missions, dropping 35,000 tons of bombs for the loss of just 193 aircraft - less than a third the loss rate of Bomber Command’s four-engined heavy bombers. Outside of Bomber Command, it would prove itself in every role from night fighter to fighter-bomber, and only at the very end of the war with the appearance of the last generation of German fighters did the Mosquito really start to lose its edge. The end of the war didn’t spell the end for the Mosquito in RAF service, though many of the bombers sold off to foreign powers. Unfortunately, the postwar career was brief even in foreign hands, as the rapid development of jets quickly took away the biggest advantage the Mosquito held. Ultimately, the Mosquito ended its RAF career as a strategic reconnaissance platform, finally being retired in the early ‘50s with the arrival of the Canberra.
>>30157500
As attempts to alleviate the issues with the Vulture engine that drove the Manchester failed, Avro began to look to alternative powerplants to salvage the bomber. By 1941, the Rolls Royce Merlin engine was selected as a new powerplant, and the bomber was quickly adapted to the new engine. Four Merlins were installed on a larger wing, creating the four-engined bomber that would become the Lancaster. Initially known as the Manchester III, the prototype was little more than a Manchester with the new wings and engines. Taking flight in January 1941, the Manchester III was modified slightly with a revised twin-fin tail for the second prototype, which was then ordered into production as the Lancaster. The design was so promising that many Manchester orders were cancelled and switched over to the new Lancaster.
>>30157525
Unfortunately, it would take a year for the Lancaster to start to reach operational units, with the first squadron only converting to the new bomber in early 1942. With reasonably good performance, a long range, and most critically, a spacious bomb bay, the Lancaster would quickly become a favored aircraft among Bomber Command, rising to prominence as the primary British bomber for the bombing of Germany. With a cavernous, unobstructed bomb bay, the Lancaster was a versatile platform that could carry a wide variety of bombs for various missions. For firebombing, for example, the Lancaster would carry a single 4,000lb “Cookie,” several 1,000lb general purpose bombs, and over a thousand incendiary bomblets. The larger bombs would shash buildings and kick up debris, allowing the fire to take hold better. Standard payloads of general purpose bombs were also used regularly, as were full loads of pure incendiary bombs.
>>30157539
Being well liked by crews and commanders alike, the Lancaster unsurprisingly would rise to be the most numerous bomber in the RAF inventory. As per RAF policy, missions were flown solely at night, with Lancasters flying alongside other Bomber Command aircraft to take part in area bombing of German cities. Because it was one of the few bombers capable of carrying the 4,000lb “Cookie” bomb, it was a necessity for any firebombing mission, and, with its unparalleled payload capacity, the Lancaster would end up dropping the majority of Bomber Command’s tonnage over the course of the war. Flying 156,000 sorties, they dropped 608,612 tons of bombs until the end of the war, amounting to 65% of the tonnage dropped by the RAF during the war. However, this came at a heavy price. Over 3,000 Lancasters were lost in action, with many falling victim to German night fighters. Though the Lancaster did have a formidable defensive armament, it was vulnerable on its underside, which German night fighters took advantage of. In the end, no real solution for this was ever implemented - instead, efforts were made to degrade the German early warning network so that the bombers could not be found.
>>30157584
Given the spacious accommodations the Lancaster made for payload, it’s not too surprising that the Lancaster would be tasked with a great deal of specialist bombing. Among the most famous specialist raids were Operation Chastise, where Lancasters were tasked with destroying dams in the Ruhr Valley. Carrying specially designed rotating drum-shaped bombs, Lancasters were required to fly a low, straight path up to the rear face of the dam for release. The rotating bomb would then skip across the surface of the water, over the torpedo nets, before hitting the face of the dam and sinking to the bottom, where it would detonate. The incredibly ambitious mission involved 19 Lancasters targeting three dams. Tactically, the operation was a success. Though eight aircraft were lost, two of the three target dams were breached, damaging much of the infrastructure downstream of the dams. However, the raids had little strategic impact, as the dams were quickly repaired and returned to operational service.
>>30157643
For hardened targets, Lancasters could also carry two massive armor-piercing bombs - the 12,000lb Tallboy and 22,000lb Grand Slam bombs. These massive bombs, which took up the entire bomb bay of the Lancaster, were designed to penetrate deep into the ground before detonating, creating an effect similar to an earthquake to damage hardened targets. The Tallboy was the first of the bombs to become operational, with the first bomb dropped in June 1944. Missions targeted everything from bridges and rail tunnels to dockyards and submarine pens. The most notable use of the Tallboy came in November 1944, when two Tallboys struck the German battleship Tirpitz at anchor, causing it to capsize. For even harder targets, the 22,000lb Grand Slam entered service in 1945. Being so large that the Lancaster’s bomb bay doors had to be removed, the Grand Slam proved even more successful than the Tallboy. Often used in conjunction with its smaller cousin, its distinguishing moment came with its use against the Valentin submarine pens at Farge, where the bombs penetrated the 23ft thick roof of the pens and detonated inside.
>>30157659
With priority given to the Lancaster in Europe, the bomber didn’t see much use elsewhere. Bombers the Lancaster replaced were often shifted off to tertiary theaters like the Mediterranean, and in cases like the Burma theater, the Lancaster was seen as poorly suited for the region. The only notable foreign deployment of the Lancaster came in 1945, when they were deployed as the largest part of the Tiger Force - the RAF component intended to support the invasion of Japan. The end of the war would see the end of the Lancaster’s career. Massive drawdowns in the RAF led to the retirement of much of the fleet, with many aircraft passed on to Commonwealth operators and the newly reestablished French Air Force. Others were converted to serve as transports, and several were even converted to aerial refueling platforms. Ultimately, the development of the far more capable Avro Lincoln spelled the end for the Lancaster in RAF service, and by the end of the ‘40s, the last Lancaster had been retired.
>>30157706
In 1941, Vickers began working on a new bomber project designed around the 22,000lb “Grand Slam” bomb. While Avro’s Lancaster could carry the bomb after extensive modification, Vickers intended to develop a bomber that could more readily carry the payload. Thus, Vickers created what became known as the Victory Bomber - a massive six-engined machine designed to drop a Grand Slam bomb from 40,000ft. Making use of the geodetic structure made famous on the Wellington, the Victory Bomber was to be a 50 ton machine with a ceiling of 45,000ft, cruise speed of 320mph, and range of 4,000 miles. Because of the protection offered by the high altitudes it would fly at, protection was minimal - just a single four-gun tail turret - and to keep crew comfortable, the cabin was to be pressurized. Unfortunately for Vickers, the Air Ministry saw little utility in a massive bomber designed for just a single payload, so in May 1941 they rejected the design, as it was believed it would not be completed before war’s end. Vickers appears to have gotten as far as wind tunnel testing of a large scale model before work came to an end.
>>30157718
As with the Maryland, the Boston would originally come into RAF service due to the transfer of French orders before the 1940 Armistice. However, the British were a far more enthusiastic operator of the Douglas bomber, coming to equip 24 squadrons with the type. The first Bostons entered service with Bomber Command in 1941, starting operations against enemy shipping early the next year. By mid 1942, they began cross-channel raids, taking over the role from the obsolete Blenheim before themselves being replaced by the more capable Mosquito. Others were converted to night fighters, with several Havocs fitted with a large searchlight in the nose to light up targets for other night fighters. After the invasion of Normandy, Bostons were moved to France to support ground forces, but they were slowly phased out through the end of the war. By the time Germany left the war, only one squadron in Europe was still flying the Boston.
>>30157745
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>>30157745
The Boston would make its real showing with the RAF over North Africa. The first Bostons arrived in North Africa in November 1941, kicking off operations with poorly-executed unescorted reconnaissance missions. In March 1942, two squadrons of Bostons were now in the theater, arriving just in time to take part in the Second Battle of El Alamein. Missions involved low-level attacks that were costly for the crews, but incredibly effective against the soft targets they encountered. Two more squadrons arrived to take part in operations in Tunisia in 1943, following the campaign into Sicily later that year. At the end of 1943, however, the South African squadrons flying the bomber would convert to the Marauder. In Fall 1944, there were again four operational squadrons in Italy, which flew constant night intruder raids over Axis-occupied Europe until the end of the war.
>>30157769
The RAF would be one of the first customers of North American’s B-25 medium bomber. Purchased under the service name Mitchell, the first of the bomber were delivered in August 1941 to a training squadron in the Bahamas. However, it took time for the RAF to adopt the bomber, so it wouldn’t be until January 1943 that RAF Mitchells flew their first operations. Up until the invasion of Normandy, they participated in sporadic cross-Channel raids at various targets in France. Once a bridgehead was secured, the four squadrons flying the bomber were transferred to France and Belgium to directly support Allied forces. Two squadrons were also sent to the Far East, where they flew the Mitchell on photo-recon missions. By the end of the war, total deliveries of the Mitchell amounted to 167 B-25Cs, 371 B-25Ds, and 240 B-25Js.
>>30157779
The British would place orders for Consolidated’s new bomber in 1940, alongside the French. Before any aircraft could be delivered, however, France fell, so the entirety of the French order was transferred to the British. The first 20 Liberators on order reached RAF service by mid 1941, but they were found to be unsuitable for combat. Lacking any self-sealing fuel tanks and having poor defensive armament, they were passed on to Coastal Command, who used them for antisubmarine patrol. They were converted for the role by adding a ventral cannon pack and a search radar, with some modified further with searchlights and mounts for 3 inch rockets. Later in 1941, a second order began to arrive with major improvements. Configured for turrets (to be fitted domestically upon their arrival), it featured self-sealing fuel tanks and a slightly longer fuselage for more crew. A large order of Liberator transports was also delivered, serving with all parts of the RAF.
>>30157796
Unlike the Fortress, the RAF’s Liberators would actually see considerable use. Two bomber squadrons of Liberators were deployed to the Middle East in 1942 to support Allied operations in the Mediterranean, and, though the RAF operated no Liberators as bombers over Germany, they did configure one squadron as jamming aircraft to support night raids. In October 1944, two squadrons were deployed to India, where they supported Allied covert operations in the Far East. For the most part, however, RAF Liberators flew as maritime patrol aircraft with Coastal Command, being extensively modified for the role. Though they were undoubtedly effective at the role, it was far from the glorious missions American B-24s would see over Europe.
>>30157812
In 1940, the RAF had placed an order for 188 Lockheed Venturas, an improved variant of the Hudson medium bomber. Deliveries began in September 1941, with the aircraft ferried across the Atlantic in April 1942. Combat missions began in November 1942, with the Ventura sent against targets in the Netherlands. Flying alongside Mosquitoes and Bostons, Venturas were sent on low-level daylight raids with poor results. The Ventura proved poorly suited to low-level raids, and transitioning to medium-level missions only saw losses mount. Ultimately, it was deemed to be unsatisfactory as a bomber. Though considerably more capable than the Hudson it was derived from, its poor performance in combat saw it quickly replaced by the Mosquito. The Ventura’s last mission with the RAF was flown in September 1943, after which survivors were shifted off to Coastal Command. Coastal Command operated a total of 387 Venturas, flying them in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. They seem to have performed better in that role, although their service was uneventful.
>>30157839
In May 1940, the joint Anglo-French Purchasing Commission had placed an order for 400 Martin Model 187 medium bombers to replace the earlier Maryland. Unfortunately, the Fall of France meant that none of the French order was delivered in time, but the order was passed on to the RAF. Deliveries began in late 1941 under Lend Lease, with the bomber entering service as the Baltimore. The Baltimore was sent to the Mediterranean, where it replaced the Bristol Blenheim. The Baltimore would become popular with crews owing to its heavy armament and agility, although crews complained about the cramped interior. Baltimores were thrown into action soon after arriving to stop the advancing Axis forces in North Africa, suffering heavy losses when flown on low-level attack missions. Once the situation stabilized, however, they began to fly at medium altitudes with escorts, where they performed far better.
>>30157885
Outside of the bomber role, the Baltimore also took on a variety of other tasks. The Baltimore was tasked with reconnaissance just like the Blenheim it replaced, as well as maritime patrol and antishipping duties. On occasion, the Baltimore was even used as a high-speed liaison aircraft. It ended up being a moderately successful patrol aircraft, sinking eight U-boats during its career in the Mediterranean. After the war moved to Italy in 1943, the Baltimore was used more directly to clear the road to Rome, and, after the 1943 Armistice, a squadron’s worth of aircraft were passed on to the Italian co-belligerent air force. Operations eventually extended across the Adriatic, aiming to support partisans in Yugoslavia. Postwar, most Baltimores were scrapped, though a single squadron remained in service briefly for mapping projects in Kenya.
>>30157894
In 1942, 52 B-26As were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease. As with earlier American medium bombers, they were sent to the Mediterranean, where they replaced a squadron of Blenheims. Operations began in late 1942, with the bombers used for maritime patrol, minelaying, and antishipping duties. Unlike USAF crews, the RAF was fairly successful with torpedo-bombing with the Marauder, sinking several ships with the aircraft. Thanks to the bomber’s forward-firing guns, they also succeeded in downing several transports ferrying supplies to North Africa. In 1943, a further 100 Marauders were delivered (this time B-26Cs), being supplied to SAAF squadrons in North Africa. Flying out of Egypt, they struck targets in the Aegean and Italy. 350 more B-26Fs arrived in 1944, supplying enough aircraft for the SAAF to form an all-Marauder wing. Now operating out of Italy, the Marauders were used in attacks across the Adriatic to support partisans in Yugoslavia. It would be during one of these operations that an SAAF Marauder was downed on May 4, 1945, making it the last Marauder of the war to be shot down. Following the end of the war, the entire inventory was quickly scrapped.
>>30157909
In 1939, Bristol developed a private venture design for a new medium bomber developed from the Beaufighter. Work proceeded on low priority, but when specifications were issued in 1940 for a Blenheim replacement, Bristol decided to tender their new design. Contracted as the Beaumont, the design mated a new forward and center fuselage to the Beaufighter. A dorsal turret was installed with four machineguns, while four forward firing and two rear firing machineguns were also added. New specifications were written around the bomber, calling for a top speed of 360mph and payload of 4,000lb. This required Bristol to rework the design around the Centaurus engine, which in turn required a new wing. The new design, now known as the Buckingham, had armament overhauled as well. Nose, dorsal, and ventral turrets were added, and a ventral gondola was installed for the bombardier. The Buckingham finally took flight for the first time in February 1943, with an order for 400 placed well before with the expectation that deliveries would begin in March 1943. Unfortunately, tests revealed terrible stability issues that could not be resolved. The type still managed to get into service by early 1944, but by then its intended role was being handled by the Mosquito. Thus, it was sent overseas to replace Wellingtons, only for these plans to be cancelled once the scale of the stability problems became apparent. Ultimately, production ceased with 119 built, and most lived out their extremely brief careers as high-speed couriers.
>>30157919
In 1943, Avro began work on a follow-on to the Lancaster. Working off of the Lancaster, the new bomber made use of a larger, stronger wing with newer Merlin engines mounted to a larger fuselage capable of carrying a larger payload of fuel and bombs. Ordered as the Lancaster IV, the bomber would have a higher service ceiling and longer range than the Lancaster, as well as a significantly higher payload. The Lancaster IV prototype would fly for the first time in June 1944, with the type rapidly ordered into production as the Lincoln. Though production began domestically as well as in Canada and Australia, it would take a while for the factories to get up and running. It wouldn’t be until 1945 that deliveries of the Lincoln would begin, and by the time the war ended and much of production was cancelled, Canadian factories had completed just a single Lincoln.
>>30157941
With the war already effectively over in Europe by the time the Lincoln entered service, the first operational aircraft were deployed to the Pacific in preparation for the invasion of Japan. However, few made it into service before the end of the war. The Lincoln would come to be the backbone of the postwar RAF Bomber Command, replacing the Lancaster. 29 RAF squadrons would come to fly the bomber, with some being partially replaced by the longer-ranged B-29 in 1950. The Lincoln made its combat debut in the 50’s in various colonial conflicts. The bombers were deployed to both Kenya and Malaya to combat insurgencies there, with Lincolns flying some 3,000 sorties and dropping half a million pounds of bombs (85% of the tonnage dropped in the campaign) in their seven-year stay in Malaya.
>>30157953
As the 1950s came, the RAF began looking for a more modern replacement for the Lincoln, but it would be some time before something would come. A small number of B-29s were loaned from the US to provide the RAF with the ability to strike targets in Eastern Europe, but the Lincoln itself would stick around into the late ‘50s. Several were configured for radar reconnaissance, flying patrols near the Iron Curtain in the early days of the Cold War. However, with the arrival of the new generation of jet bombers - first the English Electric Canberra and then the V Bombers - the Lincoln was progressively retired, ending its career as the last piston-engined bomber of the RAF.
>>30157966
Though the RAF had largely operated with domestic designs during the Second World War, the appearance of the American B-29 presented the RAF with something for which they had no equal. With nothing similar anywhere near production, the RAF would opt to receive several squadrons worth of B-29s under the service name Washington. Starting in January 1950, the USAF loaned the RAF 70 B-29s. The aircraft, which had been sitting in storage since they left the factory at the end of WW2, were virtually new. Nine squadrons would come to fly the Washington, serving as a stopgap for Bomber Command until the English Electric Canberra was ready for service. Unlike the B-29s of the USAF, Bomber Command’s Washingtons saw no use in Korea, instead remaining stationed domestically for their entire career. When the Canberra began to enter service in 1953, the RAF started to return the Washingtons. However, one squadron kept their aircraft until 1958, operating as ELINT platforms.
>>30157981
In 1944, the Air Ministry issued requirements for a successor to the Mosquito. Though English Electric had little experience of their own in designing aircraft, their considerable work in constructing other companies’ designs during the war saw them contacted to develop a proposal. In late 1944, the chief engineer from Westland joined the company, developing a twin-engined fighter-bomber design he had proposed earlier that year. The design took shape as a twin-engined aircraft with a long cigar-shaped fuselage and thick wings. Midway down the wings, engines were to be mounted, and the wings themselves would have untapering center sections and tapered outer sections. A crew of three would be carried in a pressurized nose compartment, complete with a glazed bombardier’s position and fishbowl canopy for the pilot. English Electric began construction of the four prototype Canberras in 1946, but postwar cuts meant the bomber wouldn’t fly until 1949.
>>30157997
Fortunately, the Canberra design was sound enough to be ordered into production with minimal changes. Powered by two Rolls Royce Avons, the first production aircraft took to the skies in April 1950. With a top speed of 540mph, ceiling of nearly 50,000ft, and payload of 7,900lb, the Canberra was an impressive platform for the time. It entered service in January 1951, with production accelerating due to the outbreak of war in Korea. It replaced Mosquitoes, Washingtons, and Lincolns in bomber and reconnaissance roles. Exercises soon showed the bomber’s potential, with the Canberra frequently proving fast enough to evade interception until the arrival of the Hawker Hunter. As newer variants became available, older Canberras were shifted off to overseas squadrons.
>>30158014
The Canberra’s early career was marked by fairly frequent strategic reconnaissance flights around Eastern Europe and the peripheries of the USSR. Often made in cooperation with the US, these flights continued until 1956, by which point the American U-2 took over the role. Meanwhile, strategic bombing was passed off to the V Bombers starting in 1955, when the Vickers Valiant entered service. However, the Canberra stuck around for tactical and low-level strike roles, with dedicated variants soon developed for it. New variants were fitted with forward-firing cannons and a new fighter-style canopy, while underwing pylons for bombs and rockets were added. As nuclear weapons shrunk, the Canberra took on a new bombing system to allow it to deploy these warheads from low altitudes. Squadrons based out of Germany were equipped with the American Mk 7 nuclear bomb, while squadrons in Cyprus and Singapore were armed with the British Red Beard.
>>30158032
The V bombers finally replaced the Canberras in Bomber Command in 1961, but tactical squadrons based abroad continued to fly the Canberra. As the decade wore on, however, they were progressively retired. The Cyprus and one Germany-based squadron were retired in 1969, and the Singapore squadron followed the next year. Three remaining squadrons flew on in Germany until 1972, when they too were retired. The RAF continued to operate reconnaissance variants long past that date, fitting the bombers with long-range oblique photography equipment to look deep over the border into Eastern Europe. In this role, the Canberra remained in service into the new millennium. Photo-recon Canberras made appearances over Bosnia and Kosovo in the ‘90s, and they saw service as late as 2006 in Afghanistan and Iraq. The RAF’s last Canberra sortie was flown on July 28, 2006, with a flypast marking the standing down of the last operational Canberra squadron.
>>30158041
In late 1944, the Chiefs of Staff requested an analysis from Sir Henry Tizard on the future of warfare. The resulting report, issued in mid 1945, recommended the development of atomic weapons and jet bombers capable of deploying them as a deterrent. The start of the Cold War provided impetus for development of such capabilities. As work began on development of nuclear weapons, the Air Ministry issued new specifications for a bomber to carry the weapons. Requirements called for a medium-ranged bomber capable of carrying a 10,000lb payload to a target 1,500nmi away. Loaded weight was limited to no more than 100,000lb, while cruise speed was to be 500 knots and service ceiling to be 50,000ft. Handley Page and Avro would produce two very advanced designs for the new requirements, leading to concerns that the ambitious designs may fail. Thus, the Air Ministry followed up with a new specification in July 1947 for a more conservative design from Vickers, and finally in August, Short was contracted to develop an even more conservative fallback design.
>>30158167
For their bomber, Vickers would develop a new bomber that was a fair mix between conventional features and modern elements. Though it made use of a fairly conventional layout, the Valiant had a large compound-sweep wing, with the inner wing section having a 45 degree sweep and the outer wing reduced to 24 degrees. Four Avon turbojets were place in the wing roots. The crew was housed in a pressurized compartment in the nose, while an expansive bomb bay provided space for a single nuclear weapon or up to twenty-one 1,000lb bombs. Large external tanks were designed to be placed on the outer wing sections, aimed at extending the range. The Valiant flew for the first time in May 1951, receiving a production order and the name of Valiant just a month later.
>>30158177
The first Valiant squadron was formed in January 1955, with the bomber reaching eight operational squadrons at its peak. Being the first of the V Bombers to enter service. Soon after its operational debut, Valiants were deployed to Cyprus as part of British intervention in the Suez Crisis. There, they dropped 856 tons of bombs on seven Egyptian airfields. However, having come so soon after the type entered service, results were poor. Many aircraft had yet to receive their attack radars, and the inexperienced crews only managed to disable three of the seven target airfields. Later in 1956, the Valiant became the first British aircraft to drop a nuclear bomb, deploying a downrated Blue Danube at a test range in Australia. A few months later, it followed up with the first British hydrogen bomb - Green Granite Small.
>>30158189
The Valiant continued nuclear testing through 1958, becoming the only V Bomber to drop a nuclear bomb. By the late ‘50s, Valiants were being fitted with refueling probes, while others were configured for serving as tankers. They also began transitioning to low-level approaches, often flying with American-made weapons. However, this new flight profile was only briefly used. As the newer V Bombers started to enter service, the considerably less advanced Valiant began to be phased out of combat role. Plans called for the Valiants to be phased out by 1965, but the new low-level profile took a toll on the airframes. As airframes fatigued faster than normal, the decision was made to phase out the Valiant early. In 1965, the Valiant fleet was grounded, with the exception of a single example that had been re-winged. The sole Valiant that remained flying would continue flying until 1968 as a test aircraft before it was finally retired.
>>30158201
Being contracted to develop a very conservative fallback design, Short’s Sperrin was unsurprisingly hardly remarkable. Mostly resembling a WW2 bomber with jet engines hastily applied, the Sperrin had a conventional fuselage with unswept tail surfaces and a tapered shoulder-mounted wing. Four Avon turbojets were mounted halfway down the wings, paired together in pods that straddled the spar. The Sperrin was given a crew of five in a pressurized cabin, but it lacked any defensive armament. Instead, the bomber was filled with an advanced avionics suite, complete with advanced navigation and attack systems and a defensive electronic countermeasures system. The first prototype was flown in August 1951, taking flight several months after Vickers’ more radical Valiant. Unfortunately, the Air Ministry had since dropped plans to procure the Sperrin, as the development of the other V Bombers was going smoothly. Thus, the two Sperrin prototypes were instead used for a variety of tests, including the new de Havilland Gyron turbojet, Blue Danube nuclear bomb, and Blue Boar guided missile.
>>30158209
Avro would propose undoubtedly the most radical design for the new bomber requirements. Avro’s engineers envisioned a massive tailless delta wing bomber, powered by four Bristol Olympus turbojets stacked on either wing root. Vertical surfaces were to be on the wingtips, making the bomber more or less a flying wing. The design was promising, but it was so radical that Avro would first have to fly a sub-scale demonstrator to validate the aircraft. Originally contracted to fly a twin-engined half-scale demonstrator, the projected complexity of this demonstrator saw this reduced to a third-scale machine known as the Avro 707. Apart from the dorsal intake, the 707 in many ways looked almost identical to the final product, with later aircraft in the series eventually taking on the final design’s appearance with its revised wing-root intakes. The first of five 707 prototypes flew in September 1949. Testing was extensive, though by the time the 707 flew Avro had already finalized the design for the bomber. Nevertheless, the 707 would prove valuable, validating the radical new design.
>>30158227
The Vulcan bomber that took shape in 1952 differed in many ways from the original proposal. Though it was still a four-engined delta wing, a single vertical tail was installed in place of the wingtip surfaces, and the four engines were placed side-by-side rather than stacked atop eachother. The first Vulcan prototype took flight in August 1952, powered by four Avon turbojets because the Olympus was not yet available. Two prototypes were built, with various different engines fitted over the course of testing. During testing, Avro had developed a new wing planform that involved a curved - rather than straight - leading edge. The new wing was fitted on the second prototype during testing, with the new wing showing promise. Overall, the design was promising, and in mid 1952, an order for 25 Vulcans was placed.
>>30158263
The first Vulcan was delivered in September 1956, with the first squadrons becoming operational the next year. In 1959, the fleet was outfitted with aerial refueling equipment, and several of the bombers were configured as tankers. RAF planners wished to have Vulcans fly continuously airborne patrols, but this practice was quickly deemed untenable and dropped. Still, Vulcans remained on constant standby, with small numbers of the bombers always ready to take off with a nuclear payload. Like the other V Bombers, the RAF hoped to use the Vulcan as a carrier for the Skybolt air launched ballistic missile that was then in development. The last 28 Vulcans produced were fitted with pylons to accommodate the missile, and a dedicated Skybolt-carrying variant was even proposed.
>>30158274
Unfortunately, the Skybolt would be cancelled in the early ‘60s, and, as Soviet air defenses rapidly improved, the RAF was forced to adopt new tactics to keep their nuclear deterrent relevant. The Vulcan attack profile shifted to low-level penetration, but the practice was hardly practical. The Vulcan was limited to 350 knots at low level, and the low-level profile cut range and took a heavy toll on airframes. As the Royal Navy’s Polaris Missiles took over the strategic nuclear strike role in the ‘70s, the Vulcan was shifted off to tactical nuclear strike. The constant alert they bombers saw when in the strategic role was dropped, but they continued to fly nuclear weapons. Even so, by the end of the ‘70s, the RAF was drawing down the Vulcan force as more capable tactical aircraft were assigned its role.
>>30158307
When Argentina invaded the Falklands in 1982, however, the British suddenly found themselves in search of an aircraft capable of hitting targets in the Falklands from the nearest airbase in Ascension. The Vulcan, being the last of the V Bombers to be retired, was selected, with the five newest airframes selected for the mission. Though they lacked the range to make the trip unaided, the RAF devised an elaborate refueling scheme, requiring 14 Victor refueling aircraft to perform a total of five inflight refuelings per sortie. Two Vulcans would takeoff on the mission, with one turning back if the other had no issue. To counter Argentine air defenses, the Vulcans were fitted with the ECM pods from the Buccaneer. Meanwhile, a new navigation suite and avionics to use the AGM-45 Shrike antiradiation missile were added.
>>30158318
The first Black Buck raid came on May 1, 1982, with a single Vulcan dropping a load of bombs over the airfield at Port Stanley. The bombing run crossed the airfield, dropping a single bomb right in the center of the runway and making it unsuitable for launching fighters. Black Buck 2 also hit the runway several days later, ensuring that the Argentines would have to operate all their fighters and strike aircraft from the mainland. At the end of May through mid-June, three sorties were also flown against Argentine radars on the islands with moderate success. Though the actual impact of the raids on the war is still up for debate, Black Buck was nevertheless an impressive feat, with the 6,800 nmi 16-hour missions being the longest bombing raids in history until the record was broken in 1991 by USAF B-52Gs. Unfortunately, this also marked the end of the Vulcan’s career. Once the war in the Falklands was over and tensions declined, the RAF continued to retire the Vulcans. Less than two years after the end of the was in the Falklands, the last Vulcans had been retired.
>>30158346
Handley Page’s Victor would be a more ambitious design than that of Vickers or Short. Designed around a crescent-shaped wing that was intended to ensure a constant critical Mach number across the wing, the bomber matured from a tailless proposal to a more conventional layout with a T-tail. As with the Valiant, the Victor was fitted with four turbojets mounted in the wing roots, and the crew was stationed in a pressurized compartment in the nose. A bulging chin carried a bombing radar and bombardier’s station, and the crew of five was placed all on the same level unlike the other V Bombers. The Victor would be the last of the V Bombers to fly, taking flight for the first time in December 1952. It would also become the last V Bomber to enter service, first becoming operational in late 1957.
>>30158381
Through the end of the 50’s, the Victor fleet grew to a peak strength of six operational squadrons. Replacing the Valiant, the Victor would serve alongside the Vulcan as the RAF’s primary nuclear strike platform. Thanks to an advanced navigation and attack suite, the bomber was able to operate completely independently to complete its mission. They were frequently dispersed during times of tension, with the bombers capable of launching in under four minutes if called into action. Soon after its debut, the RAF made a transition to low-level approaches, as it was determined that the V Bombers could be detected as far as 200 nmi out by Soviet radars. This, employed in conjunction with the Victor’s advanced ECM suite, was to improve the bomber’s chance of success.
>>30158398
Unfortunately, as the transition to low-level attacks began, the Victor fleet was downsized. Only two squadrons of second-generation Victor B.2s would be delivered, with the last 28 ordered cancelled. Worse, the promising new Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile, which offered the potential of keeping the Victor relevant, was cancelled in late 1962. The Victor continued to serve as a deterrent however, deploying to Singapore in 1964 to counter rising tensions between Indonesia and Malaysia. The Victor’s career as a nuclear deterrent continued until 1968, when fatigue cracks were discovered on the wings of much of the bombers. The fleet was abruptly grounded, putting an end to the Victor’s career as a bomber.
>>30158410
Though the Victor’s career as a bomber was over, it would live on as a tanker. Tanker variants of the Victor had been developed in the ‘60s, but these were scheduled to be retired by 1970. Thus, the RAF approved a major overhaul of the recently-retired Victor fleet. The Victors were fitted with tip tanks and the wing structure revised and repaired to limit fatigue. Several others were converted for strategic reconnaissance, where they served as maritime patrol platforms. Reconnaissance Victors remained in service to 1974, but the overhauled tankers lasted far longer. Their high point came in 1982, where Victors provided the extensive tanker support required for the Black Buck raids. Their last major showing came in the Gulf War, where they supported Coalition air efforts. Unfortunately, the fleet wouldn’t last much longer than that, with the Victor tanker fleet being retired in 1993.
And that's all I got.
Gonna need suggestions for new threads.
>>30158227
I've been inside the Vulcan at the Norwich airport Aviation Museum. It's like sitting inside a fucking minuscule cupboard filled with dials and lumps of metal at shin-height. I can't even imagine what flying in it was like.
>>30158346
Still the longest bombing raid launched from one airstrip. The B-52s used tankers that took off from airbases along the flight path.
>>30158346
>making it unsuitable for launching fighters. Black Buck 2 also hit the runway several days later, ensuring that the Argentines would have to operate all their fighters and strike aircraft from the mainland.
iirc, Argentina didn't place fighter jets on the runway because it was actually too short.
The bombs had very little physical impact, the runway was repaired the following day.
>>30158439
Supersonic fighters?
Still not entirely convinced that the brits didn't use some space magic stolen from the Nazis to design those V bombers
>>30158486
The runway was repaired, but the repairs couldn't handle the c-130s the argies used for resupply. This seriously fucked them over. The raids also, in conjunction with the RN FAA harriers, forced them to keep their fighters back on the mainland.
>>30158515
There seems to be a lot of conflicting information about the bombing.
>>30158486
>>30158515
>>30158542
From what I understand, the bombings were fairly easily repairable, but it made the Argies too afraid of the bombers to station any fighters on the islands. The runway at Stanley was still long enough for C-130s and Pucaras to operate from even with the damage, but it kept the Mirage IIIs far away on the mainland.
>>30158318
>dat plan
I've seen that once before, but I'll never not say it. Jesus fucking christ, those guys were insane.
Anyone got suggestions for new threads?
>>30158439
>>30161387
Soviet Air Defense aviation
>>30160779
Is there a list of what you've done before somewhere?
